Business: 十二月 2012

An Evaluation of Daylight Saving Time A Lack of Efficiency Time is not a constant. In the United States, time is set according to one's geographical location and often is adjusted with the changing of seasons in fall and spring. In spring, time is moved forward as Americans set their clocks one hour ahead. In fall, time is adjusted as Americans rewind their clocks an hour, losing one hour of daylight in the evenings. The intent is to provide for more hours in the day when natural light can be used. The practice of Daylight Saving Time has been around for centuries. However, during the course of its practice, it has undergone several major adjustments to its guidelines. DST is a policy that is followed in many countries around the world. First implemented as an energy-saving resource, it is utilized across the globe in efforts to conserve energy and save money; yet the policy has few significant benefits today. When it comes to Louis Vuitton Outlet the practice of Daylight Saving Time, the negative results of the policy far outweigh the benefits and it is easy to support abolishing the unneeded and ineffective policy. While initially showing very promising results in the world-wide efforts to conserve energy, as demands for energy have increased with developments in technology, DST is now more of a nuisance than a resource. Today, following DST does far more harm than it does good. Also, studies are increasingly showing that DST actually increases energy demand and usage rather than conserving it. The problems caused by DST are extensive and abundant; and, the majority of the projected benefits of the policy are currently unseen. Defining Daylight Saving Time Daylight Saving Time is not a new invention. It has been around for centuries, developing and changing in all areas of the world. The concept of Daylight Saving Time was first invented in New Zealand. It trickled down to the United States after several years. In the 19th century, New Zealand naturalist, George Vernon Hudson, composed his thoughts Louis Vuitton Outlet on the adoption of a two-hour seasonal clock shift in two published papers (Pavlus, 2010). His ideas led to the development of the new policy, Daylight Saving Time, which was a plan to conserve daylight hours. Through implementing this policy, humanity would be able to take full advantage of the daylight hours, reducing the demand for artificial light. He rationalized that this shift would enable the world to fully-utilize the long days of summer (Pavlus, 2010). In Paris, the famed American inventor and a member of the Royal Astronomical Society, Benjamin Franklin had formed his own ideas of how to maximize daylight hours. He satirically wrote "An Economical Project" to explain his thoughts on the issue, which was published in Journal de Paris (Prerau 2005, p. 32). His plans were not perceived as very rational, and were even considered to be a joke. In his plan, Franklin explained that the municipalities could restrict people's activity by taxing shutters to keep out sunlight, regulate and restrict the number of candles permitted per household, place restrictions on the movement of coaches at night, and even begin ringing bells and sounding canons at dawn to wake the citizens (Aldridge 1956, p. 26) His proposition for such drastic changes were his consideration of efforts that could be taken to convince people to begin to wake earlier, go to sleep earlier, and to fully maximize the hours where natural light was available. This would in turn conserve resources and alter work schedules accordingly. The actual plan still followed today, which calls for moving the clocks to fall back one hour in fall and to spring forward one hour in spring, is credited to Englishman, William Willett. The homebuilder and fellow acquaintance of the Royal Astronomical Society came up with the idea in 1905, claiming that both the wealthy and lower classes would benefit (Prerau 2005, pp. 32-33). People would not have to spend as much money on candles and coal. The concept of DST was quickly adopted in European countries and soon spread throughout the world. Europe and Russia had adopted the idea by 1918 and the United States was quick to follow (Pavlus, 2010). How Daylight Saving Time Came to the U.S. A collaboration of Hudson, Franklin, and Willet's ideas evolved into what is known today in the United States as Daylight Saving Time. The first practices of this policy in the United States were during times of war. World War I was the first time that the United States tried out the energy-conserving plan. This policy was considered to be a beneficial way to conserve much needed war resources. Robert Garland of Pittsburgh was very influential in securing the introduction and passage of DST as a practiced-policy in the U.S. (Columbia, 2010). He pressed the issue, did research, and presented a promising argument. President Wilson signed the act, establishing DST in the United States on March 31, 1918 (Columbia, 2010). Daylight Saving Time can be defined as a man-made concept that places restraints on time. This policy creates an artificial clock-time difference that is in total opposition to Sir Sanford Fleming's goal of a world time system (De Rosa, 2010). The regulation of DST originated under the observation of the Interstate Commerce Commission (National Geographic 2009). However, with the Uniform Time Act of 1966, the job was given to another area of government. The Department of Transportation was appointed by Congress to oversee DST (National Geographic 2009). "Congress ordered the transportation agency to 'foster and promote widespread and uniform adoption and observance of the same standard of time' within and throughout each such standard time zone," (National Geographic 2009). Louis Vuitton Outlet Store The Department of Transportation has the responsibility of regulation because it is also responsible for setting time zones in the United States and therefore, DST is essentially a part of that job role. America's first instance of a winter season with shorter daylight hours was brought into practice in 1918 as "an act to preserve daylight and provide standard time for the U.S." (Richardson, 2010). Daylight Saving Time was not a permanent addition to the United States initially. The policy was first repealed after World War I, and was later re-established on a year-to-year basis upon the declaration of World War II (Columbia 2010). The initial practice of DST was utilized only surrounding war times, and was typically eliminated during national periods of peace. During episodes where the United States was at peace, resources were not in such elevated demand and the necessity to conserve said resources was not of high concern. During the stage between its revoke and restoration, DST was a local option (Richardson 2010). Locales were permitted to observe DST as they felt necessary, but there was no mandate requiring any location to do so. Often times, a state would have half of its cities abiding with the DST policy, and the other half preferring not to participate. DST as a local option led to significant perplexity and confusion between inter-relating communities with a constantly changing discrepancy of time from place-to-place. In 1966, Daylight Saving Time was changed from a local option to being adopted as a nationwide policy. The Uniform Time Act made DST a permanent fixture among the laws of the United States (Richardson, 2010). "By 1966, some 100 million Americans were observing Daylight Saving Time through Louis Vuitton Outlet Store their own local laws and customs," (Aldrich 2009). However, not all states chose to accept the law. States were permitted under the Uniform Time Act of 1966 to opt out from enforcing the policy (Spotts, 2010). Arizona, Hawaii, and Indiana all opted out (Columbia, 2010). However, Indiana was not fully against the policy. Due to a lack of regulations surrounding the policy, some counties within the state followed DST, while others did not. However, in 2006, the state finally instituted the policy statewide, eliminating the confusion from county to county (Choi, 2009). Along with the many changes in the regulation of DST, the policy would soon be restricted so that states would, as a whole entity, have to decide to follow DST or to abstain from it. During Richard Nixon's time as president, DST underwent yet another significant change in its scheduling. In 1973, President Nixon extended the policy all the way to January for two years, until the public revolted and the April start date had to be restored (Richardson, 2010). Finally, the schedule of DST was made permanent in 1987, when the United State's legislation established that the time frame for DST would be from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October (Columbia, 2010). For more than a decade, DST was set according to this precedent. However, just a few years ago, in 2005, DST underwent yet another adjustment. The fixed time was extended from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November: a policy that went into effect in 2007 (Columbia, 2010). This Energy Policy Act of 2005 was feared to severely impact electric utilities since companies that used time-of-use meters could potentially have to spend millions of dollars reprogramming their meters (Prerau 2005, p. 32). "Enactment of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 did not alter the rights of the states and territories to choose not to observe Daylight Saving Time," (Aldrich 2009). Daylight Saving Time is not specific to the United States. Many other countries around the world practice some form of the policy. However, across the globe, the policy of adjusting time to maximize daylight hours is known by many different names. For instance, in Germany, the policy is called known as Sommerzeit, which translates into "summertime" (Pavlus, 2010). China, Japan, and the Canadian providence of Saskatchewan do not participate in DST (De Rosa, 2010). There are only 70 out of an existing 192 countries that practice the policy (De Rosa, 2010). Time through Time Time-keeping did not become organized until after the invention of the railroad. "In 1883, the U.S. railroad industry established official time zones with a set standard time within each zone," (National Geographic 2009). Until this change in the 1800s, time was set from location-to-location. Each village often had its own time zone, operating according to clocks that were synchronized in rhythm to the local solar moon (Temescu, 2009). The abundant amount of time zones led to significant confusion, especially for those traveling. Bill Mosley of the U.S. Department of Transportation called it "a crazy quilt of time, times zones, and time usage," (National Geographic 2009). One-hour time zones came to be in the United States in 1918 which were measured against Greenwich Mean Time Louis Vuitton Outlet Store (Spotts 2010). Today, time zones exist based on location: Central Time, Standard Time, Eastern/ Pacific Time. However, these time zones are set according to region, rather than city-to-city. There is one time setting that is set and referenced by many for ensuring the accuracy of all time settings. The Standard- Coordinated Universal Time is set according to atomic clocks, as opposed to being based on the length of one rotation of the earth (Spotts, 2010). This time is set at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C. (National Geographic 2009). Those in the International Space Station use the UTC, on account of constantly changing location and hemispheres (Spotts, 2010). The Utilization of Daylight Savings Time This policy of alternating time was enacted on a foundation of conserving energy and other vital, non-renewable resources. Energy usage patterns have changed over time, particularly as air-conditioning and household electronics have become more all-encompassing (Choi, 2009). Also, with advances in technology, more energy is used on a daily basis on things like televisions, computers, and other household electronics. Implemented as a beneficial addition to policy to conserve resources and even save people money, Daylight Savings Time was put to use more than once but upon its permanent implementation, the efforts to conserve energy have been felt across the entire world. The first comprehensive study to evaluate its effectiveness was during balenciaga outlet the oil crisis of the 1970s. During this time, the United States Department of Transportation carried out a study that found daylight saving cut-down on national electricity usage by one percent, in comparison to standard time (Choi, 2009). One study, by the United States Department of Energy, found that the demand for electricity actually dropped during Daylight Saving Time. The study showed that demand dropped for 0.5 percent, which translates to the amount of approximately three million barrels of oil (Temescu, 2009). Intergovernmental Relations in Terms of Time As mentioned earlier, the observance of Daylight Saving Time was not always standardized throughout the country. Initially, some villages chose to observe DST, while others chose to abstain from the policy. This posed a serious conflict. National industries, like broadcasting, railways, airlines, and bus companies, relied on customers who followed schedules (Prerau 2005, p. 36). With locations constantly changing times due to following or not following DST, new schedules were constantly in production. Today, despite being a nationally-adopted policy, some states still choose not to follow DST. For instance, Arizona and Hawaii still choose to not follow DST (Columbia, 2010). Also, the American Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands are all United States territories that do not comply with DST (Gurevitz 2005). While DST is a national policy, adopted under the Uniform Time Act of 1966, states do have the option of opting out (Spotts, 2010). However, the state must either be completely involved or completely opt out. DST enactment is required to be statewide and the state must use the Standard National DST period (Prerau 2005, p. 37). This restriction helps to regulate time and ensure continuity throughout the country. Time zones are set, based on region in the United States. However, with Arizona and Hawaii not following Daylight Savings Time, these states essentially are their own time zone during the period when the rest of the nation is following DST. Throughout the history of DST, different local customs and laws resulted in the need for new schedules to be produced each time a state or town decided to institute or end DST (Prerau 2005, p. 36). This is still a current issue. This has the potential to cause confusion, especially for people traveling from state to state, as well as for those industries listed above that are time-sensitive and set to schedules. The Benefits Daylight Saving Time was invented as a way for people to conserve resources, especially electricity. It was originally thought that through the establishment of such guidelines, people would not have to use any artificial light until later in the evenings, fully maximizing the sunlight (Prerau 2005, p. 32). There are many benefits that were projected. As a result of DST, it was expected that there would be a reduction in traffic fatalities, cuts in crime, economic activity would increase, and there would be a widespread promotion of public health (Prerau 2005, p. 32). Also, DST was projected to help with the environment in more ways than just conserving energy. At the time of its promotion, it was assumed that with less coal being required for the production of gas and electric lighting, there would be less smoke to pollute the atmosphere (Prerau 2005, pp. 32-33). During its revision in Congress in the late 1980s, advantages noted included "more daylight outdoor playtime for the children and youth of our Nation, greater utilization of parks and recreation areas, expanded economic opportunity through extension of daylight hours to peak shopping hours.." (National Geogrpahic 2009). However, documented results are inconclusive to prove that DST is providing any relief and conservation and meeting any of the projected benefits that were part of the initial institution. The intentions behind the idea are great, but the evidence only supports minimal benefits actually resulting. In 1975, the Department of Transportation evaluated the plan of extending DST and found that benefits were minimal (Gurevitz 2005). Following this report, the National Bureau of Standards was asked to review the results. The NBS presented a report to the United States Congress in April 1976, evaluating the report by the Department of Transportation. In "Review and Technical Evaluation of the DOT Daylight Saving Time Study," NBS reported that there were no significant energy savings or differences in traffic fatalities (Gurevitz 2005). However, other research has shown conflicting results. "Research has shown that more available daylight does decrease the number of traffic accidents, traffic fatalities, and incidences of crime," (National Geographic 2009). Estimates about the decrease in traffic fatalities seem to be the most significant benefit of DST. "The Department of Transportation estimated that 50 lives were saved and about 2,000 injuries were prevented in March and April of the study years. The department also estimated that $28 million was saved in traffic accident costs," (Aldrich 2009). DST is used as a yearly reminder for safety. "The National Fire Protection Association and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission recommend that consumers change the battery in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors when we change the clocks for Daylight Savings Time," (Aldrich 1995). The Downfalls Research has repeatedly shown that Daylight Saving Time is not achieving its desired benefits. Based on time settings, the negative effects on the world's ecology is just one of the downsides to DST. Diurnal and nocturnal flora and fauna are being confused due to excessively lighting up the sky during the night hours (De Rosa, 2010). This is obviously an extreme issue in urban areas, where the cities are well-lit all throughout the night. However, this is also a serious problem in rural areas, especially on farms. It can be difficult to follow the sun and change clocks and livestock does not adjust their biological clocks according to DST (Prerau 2005, p. 32). This argument stems from the rationale that time should be set according to the natural progression of night and day, based on the sun's movement. Midnight should be when the sun is lowest in the sky, which should naturally be the middle of human sleep time; and noon should be when the sun is at its highest and should be the middle of the day (De Rosa, 2010). In order for DST to actually reap the benefits projected, people would have to wake much earlier in the mornings and go to Burberry Store sleep much earlier in the evenings. Because of DST, days are shortened, but sleep schedules often are not adjusted accordingly. Therefore, due to a lack of utilizing all of the daylight hours, more energy is used with people working late into the evenings, traveling, and being involved in night-time activities that require energy usage to light up the darkness of the night hours. Some studies have shown just how much energy demands actually increase during DST, as opposed to decreasing, as intended. In a study by Matthew Kotchen of the University of California, Santa Barbara and his colleague Laura Grant, research showed that DST actually led to a one-percent overall increase in residential electricity use, which cost the state of Indiana an extra nine-million dollars over the course of one year (Choi, 2009). Today, research still continues, determining the efficiency of DST. In an upcoming study in the Journal of Economics and Statistics, electricity consumption patterns from a "natural experiment" in Indiana will be published. This study compared regions that observe DST to regions that do not, and the findings were that those observing DST actually consumed more and had higher demands for electricity as a whole (Pavlus, 2010). Daylight Saving Time has also been considered as a cause of many medical problems. In addition to affecting the flora and fauna, human health may also be negatively impacted due to the changing time. Some studies have blamed DST for traffic accidents, depression, and an increased risk of heart attacks (Pavlus, 2010). People do not typically adjust their schedules to Daylight Saving Time. For instance, people do not wake any earlier to take advantage of the daylight hours. People just use more electricity in the evenings to perform their regular tasks and routines, unaffected by whether there was sunlight or it was dark outside. People's work schedules do not change with the time changes. In a study of 55,000 people, results showed that the human body operates according to the seasonal progression of dawn, and not according to DST (O'Connor, 2009). Should it stay or should it go? With so much research to support the inefficiencies of Daylight Saving Time, it can be determined that doing away with such a policy would not result in any loss. While the intentions to conserve energy are good, especially in the world today where so many are concerned about global warming, greenhouse gases, and expending non-renewable resources, DST is not fulfilling its goals. This policy was implemented in order to help resolve some of these problems. However, significant research has shown that DST actually has resulted in increased energy demands, and has even contributed to health problems for many. In addition to the health risks, safety risks are also of concern. With DST, especially in rural areas, many children have been killed after being struck by vehicles while walking to school or the bus stop in the darkness of the early morning hours (Prerau 2005). The future of DST is grim. With so many negative aspects resulting from the policy, and because of a lack of benefits, the possibility of eliminating DST in future years is great. In order for DST to be successful in conserving energy as it originally was, work and school schedules would have to adjust with the Louis Vuitton Shoes time. People working a 9-to-6 schedule would need to adjust the schedule in the fall to 8-to-5 in order to cut back on the energy needed to work in the evening hours when it gets dark earlier. The constant changing of schedules that would be necessary to reap the benefits of the energy-conserving policy would result in more hassle and confusion than the results would be worth. Therefore, Daylight Saving Time is no longer a beneficial policy to the world and there is no need for its practice to be further implemented in future years. References Aldridge, A.O. 1956. "Franklin's Essay on Daylight Saving." American Literature. Duke University Press. JSTOR. Choi, Charles Q. 2009. "Spring Forward or Not." Scientific American. Vol. 300, Issue 3. EBSCOHOST. Obtained from Military And Government Collection. Columbia Encyclopedia. 2010. "Daylight Saving Time." 6th ed. EBSCHOST. Obtained from Military and Government Collection. De Rosa, Philip. 2010. "We'd All Be Much Better off Without Daylight Savings Time." CCPA Monitor. Vol. 16, Issue 8. EBSCOHOST. Academic Search Premier. Gurevitz, Mark. 2005. "CRS Report for Congress." U.S. Dept. of State. Lee Aundra, Temescu. 2009. "20 Things You Didn't Know About Time." Louis Vuitton Shoes Outlet Discover. Vol. 30, Issue 3. EBSCOHOST. Academic Search Complete. National Geographic. 2009. "Daylight Savings Time 2009: When and Why We Fall Back. National Geographic News. O'Connor, Anahad. 2009. "Daylight Saving Time Can Affect Your Health." New York Times. EBSCOHOST. Academic Search Premier. Pavlus, John. 2010. "Daylight Savings Time." Scientific American. Vol. 303, Issue 3. EBSCOHOST. Obtained from Military and Government Collection. Prerau, David. 2005. "Just One More Hour" Electric Perspectives. Vol, 30, Issue 6. EBSCOHOST. Richardson, Chris. 2010. "Don't Wind Your Clocks Back Yet, Louis Vuitton Shoes Outlet America! When Is Daylight Savings 2010, and Why Does It Feel so Late?" Christian Science Monitor. EBSCOHOST. Academic Search Complete. Spotts, Peter N. 2010. "Daylight Savings Ends: Time to 'fall back'. Christian Science Monitor. EBSCOHOST. Academic Search Complete. Spotts, Peter N. 2010. "Daylight Saving Time: Remind me again why we 'spring forward?'. Christian Science Monitor. EBSCOHOST. Academic Search Complete.

Business

2012年12月5日星期三

Brief News- Obama Trades in Nobel Prize for Noble Prize_6418

2012年12月4日星期二

An Evaluation of Daylight Saving Time_11600

2012年12月3日星期一

Yes to Carrots Moisturizer Review- Eye Contour Cream_1132

Will Medicare Cover Naturopathy and Alternative Medicine-_6758